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What Does It Mean for Citizens to be Misinformed or Uninformed About Science? Of course, citizens can be uninformed and misinformed all at once-for example, they may be uninformed about how scientific processes work while being misinformed about the facts of a specific scientific issue-and these factors may influence each other. In practice, then, it is difficult to cleanly separate the "misinformed" from the "uninformed." Our goal, therefore, is not to tease apart these epistemic states, but rather to review what is known about individual-level "unawareness," "misinformation," or both, to identify what may be missing from proposals to improve those encounters and to bring these discussions to bear on the specific field of science communication. Survey data on Americans' (mis)understanding of the scientific process does not show meaningful changes over time (with some variations due to coding of open-ended data). In the most recent SEI survey, one in three Americans (36%) misunderstood the concept of probability; half of the population (49%) was unable to provide a correct description of a scientific experiment; and three in four (77%) were unable to describe the idea of a scientific study, indicating an inability among "[m]any members of the public ... to differentiate a sound scientific study from a poorly conducted one and to understand the scientific process more broadly" (11). Conspiratorial beliefs. It might be argued that survey respondents who express belief in conspiracy theories do not actually believe the falsehoods, but rather that they endorse certain conspiratorial views as a means of expressing their political or ideological allegiances, or to engage in a sort of out-group "mudslinging" (e.g., by claiming that Barack Obama is not American). Recent research, however, supports the claim that individuals actually do hold the conspiratorial beliefs they assert and are not simply engaging in "expressive survey responding" (23). Unfortunately, conspiratorial beliefs often persist because the falsehoods which help to sustain them are repeated and "boosted" by politicians, corporate actors, fringe media organizations, and others to mobilize political support from their base (7). Addressing misinformation at the individual level. Calls for a systems approach also highlight a second area where research is needed, as outlined in the Communicating Science Effectively report: research on emerging media environments. There is new urgency to this problem, in light of findings that link use of social media to, for example, lower levels of political knowledge (94), as well as recent work suggesting that misinformation travels faster in social network than true facts (24). One participant in the first Sackler Colloquium on the Science of Science Communication already highlighted the challenges for both researchers and practitioners resulting from a lack of a systematic corpus of work in this area: "[E]mpirical research examining specifically online science communication processes and outcomes is still scant ... [and] many of the "best practices" of online science communication currently exchanged among practitioners are based on experiential evidence rather than on an empirical understanding" (95). Scholars have diagnosed similar research deficits related to misinformation and fake news in online communication environments. Their call to action mirrors systems approach thinking and calls for multidisciplinary efforts to empirically understand "the vulnerabilities of individuals, institutions, and society" to fake news disseminated through ubiquitous online channels (25). designer bags cyber monday
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